A

absolute majority A number of votes equal to more than 50 percent of the eligible votes cast.

accredited Describes an officially acknowledged envoy or diplomat who possesses the formal credentials of a representative having the general authority to act on behalf of a foreign sovereign.

acid rain The product that occurs when nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulphur dioxide (SO₂) are released into the atmosphere and combine with moisture to form acids. These acids are carried long distances and return to earth as rain, snow, or fog. They kill life in lakes and rivers, and damage buildings, trees, and crops.

ad hoc committee A committee appointed for a specified period of time or for the completion of a designated task to review the content of proposed legislation.

adjudicate Under international law, this is a legal technique for settling disputes peacefully by submitting them to an established national or international court.

administocracy A type of government that is created when bureaucrats make decisions that permit them to simultaneously formulate and implement public policy.

administration The ways in which the activities of an organization are managed in order to implement certain policies or goals.

administrative state A system of governance through which public policies created by elected politicians are, in fact, influenced by bureaucrats who are expected to implement the work of politicians.

admiralty law The law relating to ships, navigation, harbours, and mariners.

aggregate The process by which two or more individuals or groups combine their demands to seek a common political objective, e.g., tax reform, social-welfare programs.

agrarian society A society in which a significantly large number of members (peasant class) are involved in agricultural pursuits, on plantation systems of forced or transient labour.

agréation The formal procedures used by states to exchange ambassadors.

agreement An official gesture of response by a government of the acceptability of a foreign diplomat who will be sent to it.

alliance Normally an alliance is a bilateral or multilateral treaty that stresses co-operation wherein the member states are expected to come to the aid of the collectivity. Alliances can also be based on a common strategy on the part of states to have access to desirable economic and political resources.

al-Qaeda A terrorist network, lead by Osama bin Laden, dedicated to the hatred of Western secular values and US global hegemony. The network co-ordinates its operations and finances through the internet, the global banking system, and the media.

amendment procedureThe formal and informal methods used to change a constitution.

amnesty An executive determination that an entire class of people shall not be prosecuted or , because of special circumstances, will be exempted from the application of the law.

amoral Behaviour that is indifferent to morality.

appellate courts Courts that are empowered to hear appeals from lower courts.

appropriations bills In the US, a Congressional enactment to authorize government expenditures.

aprismoThe democratic revolutionary movement spawned by the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA), founded by Victor Haya de la Torre of Peru, which came to be the prototype for other parties of the democratic left in Latin America.

arbitrariness The exercise of authority by officials who use their authority for personal rather than institutional goals.

arbitrate An old pacific practice recognized by international law that permits parties to a dispute to agree on what issues need to be resolved, which judges will deliberate under the rules of international law, and prior agreement that the decision rendered will be binding.

arbitration A legal technique for settling disputes which involves agreement between or among the parties as to what issues will be resolved, what procedures will be followed, who will judge the dispute, and that the decision reached will be binding.

architectonic In the language of Aristotle, it refers to the master art that prescribes the content of all other arts, occupations, and skills of life.

aristocracy Comes from the Greek, meaning "rule by the best," by which virtue is the title to power, but is more commonly described as rule by the privileged who may enjoy an hereditary status or whose power flows to them by virtue of their class position in society.

arithmetic progression A sequence in which each term is derived from the preceding one by adding a given number d called the "common difference." Thus, if d is 2, the progression would appear as 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 ...

Articles of Confederation The instrument of government that served as the basic document for the US states that had broken away from Great Britain between 1775 and 1781.

auditor general The financial watchdog of Parliament who performs an annual audit of the Public Accounts, prepares an annual report to Parliament on the government's financial management, and releases the report to the general public.

authoritative The characteristic of a person, group, institution, or government which makes legitimate either in reality or in appearance the acts and commands exercised in its name.

autocracy A form of government in which power is held by a single person unencumbered by legal or other restraints.

autocratic The quality of absolute power invested in a single ruler who exercises authority without being accountable to any person or institution.

autonomous The freedom of political systems and subsystems to manage their own affairs without external interference.

B

backbenchers All of the members of the legislature in the British model of parliament who are not members of the cabinet or leaders of the opposition parties.

balance of payments A statistical record of all economic transactions that have taken place during a given time period between a country's residents and rest of the world.

balance of power A concept used to denote several types of interstate relations in the context of shifting alliances and alignments.

ballot Derived from the term ballotta, a round bullet. Eventually came to mean a voice or a lot used in the act of voting, usually in secret, by balls or by written or printed tickets or slips of paper.

behavioural Any human activity, ranging from internal psychological responses (as in thought, perception, judgment, and opinion), to overt, observable, and physical actions.

bill A proposal placed before an assembly that must pass through various stages of scrutiny before becoming law.

bill of rights Usually comprises amendments to a constitution that place restrictions on the powers of the national government, and that protect the rights and liberties of individuals. The first 10 amendments to the US Constitution, ratified in 1791, constitute its Bill of Rights.

binding Bringing or placing under definite duties or legal obligation, particularly by treaty, convention, or custom which can affect states in a constraining or compulsory manner.

biological weapons Toxic substances that create diseases and epidemics when released against enemy troops or populations.

black economy Economic activity that is not recorded in the national income accounts, although it does involve the actual production of goods and services. It is carried out either by barter or for cash that is not declared as income for taxation purposes.

black market An illegal market created when the demand for a commodity that is controlled and rationed by the state exceeds the legal supply, such that people are willing to pay a much higher price than the controlled price to obtain greater amounts of the commodity.

Bolshevik A member of the revolutionary wing of the Russian Social Democratic Party that followed the ideas of Lenin by advocating violent revolution. The bolsheviki means members of the majority, and the mensheviki were the members of the minority.

bourgeoisie From the French for "town dweller," the term was used by Marx to identify the class of property and production ownership that flourished under capitalism.

budget deficit The amount by which a government's expenditures exceed its receipts during some specified period of time, usually one year.

Budget Speech The speech made when the Minister of Finance completes estimates for a financial year.

bureaucratic discretion Involves a degree of freedom of judgment or choice which a bureaucrat can exercise in implementing public policies.

bureaucratization The tendency to organize human behaviour into formal organizations and structures for the purposes of efficiency and control.

C

Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) A special intelligence agency of the Canadian government that came into being in July 1984, with a legal mandate to place under surveillance anyone suspected of terrorism, espionage, sabotage, and foreign-influenced threats to national security of domestic subversion.

career tenure Job security that comes when a prescribed amount of time and certain qualifications have been met within a public administration.

cartel An international agreement among producers of a commodity that attempts to control the production and pricing of that commodity.

caucus A closed meeting of the members of a political party, either to select a candidate for office or to agree on a legislative position.

central agencies Advisory bodies to cabinet designed to provide detailed information, intelligence and expert opinion regarding any and all matters.

charismatic A term used to describe a person who possesses an extraordinary set of aptitudes that enables him or her to lead and inspire others without the necessity of having formal authority.

checks and balances The political ideal embodied in the separations of powers, whereby each branch of government serves to limit or check on the powers of the other branches.

chemical weapons Gases, herbicides, and other substances that can kill or paralyze enemy troops or populations.

Chief Electoral Officer In Canada, an independent official who is responsible to the House of Commons and sets the election machinery in motion.

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Chemical emissions that have negative impacts on the levels of ozone (O₃) in the atmosphere.

civilization A term that covers the stages of human development made possible by a type of complex society that has achieved an organized and efficient agriculture, and an improved and progressive condition of people living under an organized government with political structures that perform beyond the family or clan.

Clerk of the House Advises the Speaker and members on parliamentary procedure and practice and sits at a table in front of the Speaker in the Chamber. The Clerk is the most senior executive officer of the Commons and is responsible for keeping official records of proceedings, preparing Commons documents, and supervising the procedural officers and Clerks.

closure A device used by the governing party to end debate in the House of Commons and to force a vote.

coalition government A government formed by several minority political parties that constitute the Cabinet when no single political party can command a majority in the legislature.

code A code is a legislative enactment or a group of statutes and regulations brought together in a single body to provide more or less a complete set of rules on one or more fields of law.

codified law The collecting and arranging of the laws of a state into a code, i.e., into a complete system of positive law, scientifically ordered, and promulgated by legislative or executive authority.

codify To arrange laws into a written systematic body, as opposed to unwritten mores, norms, and traditions.

collective security A concept that provides for a global or regional defence system based on the agreement of members to take collective action against an aggressive and belligerent state or group of states.

Committee of the Whole The entire parliamentary body.

committee system The complex and formal arrangement whereby a legislative body investigates matters deemed worthy of possible legislative action by the use of committees composed of legislators.

common market An economic association of states that moves them several steps closer to economic integration; in addition to free trade among members and a common external tariff, common markets either eliminate or substantially reduce restrictions on the movements of labour and capital among member states. They may even co-ordinate fiscal, monetary, and exchange-rate policies.

compliance Conduct that demonstrates an acceptance of legal authority, and a willingness to conform to the rules, regulations, and laws of international relations.

compulsory adjudication The judicial process to compel the attendance in court of a legal person (state), wanted there as a witness or otherwise.

compulsory enforcement The establishment of the necessary bureaucratic and military machinery to provide and administer the sanctions required to implement international law.

compulsory voting Electoral participation by qualified voters that is required by law, as used in Australia, Belgium, the Netherlands, Austria, Brazil, Italy, and other states.

conciliation A procedure to peacefully settle disputes in which representatives of a group of impartial nation-states establish the facts and base recommendations on them to the disputants.

concurrent powers Powers that are shared by the various levels of government constitutionally designated to exercise certain jurisdiction.

conflict In the international system, it is a type of interstate interaction, characterized by antagonistic encounters or collisions of interests, ideas, policies, programs, and persons or other entities, sometimes involving the use of armed force.

Congress The legislative branch of the United States federal government, authorized by Article 1 of the Constitution, which creates two houses, the House of Representatives and the Senate.

constitutional regime A elected government that operates according to principles of constitutionalism whereby it is limited in the exercise of its powers.

constitutionality The conformity of legislation, government conduct, and judicial decisions to the spirit and letter of the constitution.

controls The techniques and strategies for regulating human behaviour in any society.

consensus A widespread agreement on a particular issue, policy, or course of action by those participating in the making of the decision, without a formal verification of the statistical proportion of support.

constituency A legislative district or riding from which an individual or group of individuals is chosen to represent in a public fashion the interests of people, known as constituents.

constituent A resident in a legislator's district or constituency.

consuls Foreign service officials appointed to represent various commercial, minor diplomats, and service functions on behalf of a state.

conventional weapons All weapons excluding nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons.

conventions An assembly of official delegates representing a political party in the discharge of some official duty, such as the choice of party candidates, the adoption of platform statements, or the selection of delegates to represent the party at a higher-level meeting.

core area A relatively small portion of a country in which the political power of the entire state is concentrated, usually where a nation-state originated.

corps diplomatique The full diplomatic contingent of a state. Sometimes the term is used to refer to all diplomats in the community of diplomats around the world.

Council of Economic Advisors (CEA) An executive office agency established in 1946 to analyse the US economy, advise the president on economic programs, and recommend policies for economic growth.

coup d'état A sudden political or military action, frequently initiated by people possessing some authority, to overthrow an existing government by force.

court of first instance A court before which an action is first brought for trial.

court order The direction of a court or judge that commands a party to do or not to do something in particular.

Crown Reference to the composite character of sovereign power in a monarchy and a symbol of the institutions of state, as with Crown law, Crown lands, Crown courts, Crown office, Crown debts, etc.

cuartelazo A barracks revolt, used to refer to a military coup d'état.

custom A conventional or accepted practice that may be recognized as legitimate behaviour and is reinforced by the actions of legal and political institutions.

customs union Eliminates tariffs among members but goes beyond the free trade area by erecting a common external tariff against imports from the outside world.

D

dark horse An unexpected compromise candidate who is nominated for office by a political party after a series of deadlocks over more conspicuous contenders.

death rate The number of deaths in any given year divided by the mid-year population and multiplied by 1000.

decolonization The forces of national self-determination that led to the rapid dwindling of empire and the birth of new, independent nation-states.

deforestation Loss of forests due to harvesting, expanding farm, and urban acreage, soil erosion, acid rain, and other deleterious impacts.

demagogue A political leader who takes advantage of social and political unrest by making emotional and prejudiced appeals to the general population for political gain.

democratic centralism A term introduced to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union that permits free discussion on issues within the party, but once a decision is reached the iron discipline of the party prevails and all must support the decision taken.

democratization The gradual and intended transition of a state from authoritarian or totalitarian institutions to democratic ones, usually involving free elections, legislative reforms, and a responsible executive.

descriptive An analytical skill that involves applying appropriate conceptual labels to people, things, events, and ideas that are observed.

detached observation A technique of observing the behaviour of people in such a way as to remain objective and impartial from what is observed.

detente A diplomatic term indicating a situation of lessened tension in relations between two or more nation-states.

deterrence A political and military strategy based on the theory that the best way to prevent war and aggression is to build up such a massive and threatening arsenal of weapons that no other nation-state would risk an attack.

deviant behaviour In the international community, deviance can be defined as behaviour that is contrary to the standards of customary and legal conduct (which are widely accepted as contributing to the stability of the system in inter-state relations).

devolve To transfer sovereignty to other governing units, sometimes within a federal state from the national government to the subnational governments and sometimes to a new separate and independent government.

dialectic A concept borrowed from Hegel by Marx, which asserts that all societies contain within them the seeds to their own destruction-the struggle of opposites generates social transformation.

diplomatic asylum The provision of a haven of refuge, usually within an embassy or consular premises, to individuals or groups, seeking to avoid the authority of the host state.

diplomatic bag A sealed pouch or valise, clearly marked and identified as diplomatic property, that contains official records and documents for communication between an embassy and the sending state.

diplomatic immunities Exemptions applied to diplomatic representatives of one country from certain internal civil and criminal jurisdictions of the country to which the representatives are accredited.

disarmament The decision by one or more states to destroy weapons in their possession and not to build and acquire others.

discrimination The according of different treatment to persons, bodies, or groups without sufficient reason or legal authority for so doing.

dissolve To terminate a parliamentary term, followed by a general election.

division The process of voting in a legislative assembly, committee, or political convention.

division of labour The separation of work into distinct parts, each of which is completed by an individual or group of individuals for the purposes of increasing production, efficiency, and specialization of expertise.

Dred Scott decision The racist decision of the United States Supreme Court in 1857 that precipitated the Civil War because it held that descendants of African slavers were not included under the word "citizen" used in the Constitution, and could claim none of the rights and privileges conferred on citizens.

E

eclectic In political science, an approach to knowledge that draws information from other disciplines by selecting and combining the appropriate methods and conclusions for political research.

ecology A term coined in the nineteenth century, referring to the relationship of living things to each other and to their natural environment.

economic interdependence The degree to which the economic performance of a nation-state is dependent on the international economy.

electoral college A unique American institution, created by the Constitution, providing for the election of the president by electors chosen by the state parties. Although the electoral college vote usually reflects a majority of electors' support a presidential candidate, the winner-take-all rule often gives a president less than a majority of the popular vote support.

electorate All persons taken as a group who have qualifications to vote in an election.

embassy A diplomatic establishment located in a foreign state headed by an ambassador.

empire Originally referred to territory governed by emperors but has now fallen almost entirely into disuse in that it refers to large areas of land and peoples conquered and coerced by a foreign power.

elite Any select group of individuals enjoying privileged status in a society and often united by certain common ties, interests, or objectives.

enactment¹Laws that are formally made by parliamentary legislatures, for specific purposes, to regulate specific forms of behaviour, with punishments clearly stated and carried out by the state.

enactment² The formal process of giving validity to a bill or constitutional amendment.

enforcement Refers to the process of applying and administering the law, its regulations, penalties, and rewards.

enfranchisement The extension of the right to vote to certain groups and categories of individuals formerly excluded by law or procedure.

engross To copy the rude draft of a legal instrument, such as a bill or agreement.

entrench To embody provisions within the protection of a constitution, subject to amendment procedures not affected by ordinary legislation.

environmentalism An ideology that is dominated by concern about the environment but also promotes grassroots democracy, social justice, equal opportunity, non-violence, respect for social diversity, and feminism.

equidistance Boundaries for lakes, oceans, rivers, and straits based on the principle that the line is drawn down the geographical centre, giving each side equal and equally usable portions.

equity The application of fairness when deciding general law which provides remedies not specified in the law.

ethical A term to describe rules and codes of morality informed by human goodness and rightness and embodying absolute rules upon which humans should pattern their conduct.

ex aequo et bono Literally means "in justice and fairness" and is used when a court is permitted to apply the doctrine of equity in the determination of a case.

Exchequer Court This court evolved under English law to hear cases involving the monarch's accounts and royal revenues. The Exchequer Court of Canada was created in 1875, the same year as the foundation of the Supreme Court of Canada, for the better administration of the laws of Canada. The court's jurisdiction was originally to hear matters pertaining to federal revenue law where the Crown was being sued. Over the years more specialized areas of law were added, among them admiralty law, as well as patents, trademarks and copyright. The Exchequer Court of Canada was replaced by the Federal Court in 1971.

Executive Office of the President (EOP) The office containing the major staff organizations of the president, such as the White House Office and the Office of Emergency.

exequatur Many states, although not required by international law to receive foreign consuls, issue a document called an exequatur, which authorizes the consul to exercise a professional jurisdiction within the territory of the receiving state, with all the privileges and immunities customarily granted to such officers.

exclusive powers Those political entitlements that, under a constitution, may be exercised only by either the national government or the subnational governments.

executive prerogative Usually refers to a special privilege, power, or immunity vested in an executive office or person who alone enjoys particular rights and capacities in contradistinction to others.

expertise Expert or technical advice used by governments to help determine what policies to recommend and how to administer policies already formulated.

extinction When a previously independent state relinquishes its legal personality voluntarily, or by merging with another state, or by forcible annexation of conquest.

F

faction A small, relatively homogeneous group of individuals within a larger organization, such as a political party.

factums A legal memoir which contains the facts upon which a contest is based.

fertility rate The births occurring to a human population.

fifth column A subversive strategy to weaken a government by infiltrating its organization in order to cause division, dissent, and disorder.

filibuster A time-consuming tactic used by legislators to prevent the passage of a proposed bill or amendment by taking as long as possible to delay a piece of legislation.

flexible constitution A constitution that is easily amended.

floor leader A person who is in charge of getting a U.S. congressional bill passed, or in the case of opposition, of getting it defeated.

foreign policy A policy that, like domestic policy, involves choice-taking, but involves choices about relations with other nation-states, international organizations, and the rest of the world.

franchise In the field of politics, this means the right to vote.

free trade zone A region in which tariffs are eliminated among member states but each member is permitted to set its own external tariff for imports from the outside world.

G

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) An international organization formed at Geneva in 1947 that promotes trade among members and provides a forum for negotiating the reduction of tariffs, quotas, and other trade barriers.

generalization A statement about a class or categories of things or events.

geometric progression A sequence in which each term is derived by multiplying the preceding term by a given number r called a "common ratio." Thus, if r is 2, the progression would appear as 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, .…

gerontocracy A government formed by the oldest people within the social and political system.

good offices As viewed from the perspective of international law, this is an instrument used for the peaceful settlement of disputes by which a state not party to a dispute offers the perceived neutrality of its territory and official resources to parties in conflict so as to facilitate a negotiated settlement.

grants-in-aid In the US, monetary grants made available by one government jurisdiction to another, usually on the basis of prescribed conditions designed to meet specific program objectives.

green revolution A term coined in 1968 by William Guad, administrator in the US Agency for International Development (AID), to describe the introduction and rapid adoption, world wide, of high-yielding wheats and rices.

greenhouse effect A global warming effect caused by an accumulated presence of carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, which blocks the radiation of heat reflecting from the earth into space.

grits An American slang term referring to the stuff a person is made of. It was used to label members of the Reform Party in Canada in the 1840s, and because of the merger of that party with the Liberal party is frequently used to describe contemporary Liberals.

Governor General's special warrants Extra-parliamentary executive borrowing privileges, authorized under Canada's Financial Administration Act and used only in emergencies for urgent and unforeseen government expenditures.

Group of Eight (G-8) Annual summit meetings of leading Western industrial states to develop and synchronize economic policies in the capitalist international economic system. Participating states are Canada, France, Japan, Italy, United Kingdom, United States, Germany, and Russia.

gubernatorial Of or relating to the office of governor, whose functions include the management of state governments in the United States and other nation-states.

H

Hansard An official record of the daily proceedings of the House of Commons and the Senate, which are edited, translated, and printed in English and French. Hansard is the name of the printer in England who began preparing reports of parliamentary debates in the eighteenth century.

hegemony The domination of one state over another state, region, or the world.

hierarchical The term used to describe the relative positions of individuals or groups of individuals within a body or society and their relationship to power and control.

High Commission A diplomatic mission of a state that is a member of the Commonwealth.

Holy See This refers to the office or jurisdiction of the pope.

homeostasis The tendency in a social or political system to stabilize by means of self-adjustments (such as elections) that counter or compensate for disruptive and destabilizing influences.

human nature Those psychological and biological qualities universally characteristic of the human species.

human reason The distinctive human faculty that permits a process of thinking, leading to logical conclusions.

hustings Any place where political campaign speeches are made.

hypothesis Any tentative statement that describes or explains the relationship between or among variables.

I

ideologue Someone who is committed to a particular ideology, who advocates its provisions and defends it against the logic of other ideologies.

impeach The power of the US Congress to remove the president, the vice-president, federal judges, and other federal employees from office if convicted for treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanours.

impeachment The power of the US Congress to indict a president, or members of the cabinet and judiciary, by a single majority vote in the House of Representatives, followed by a trial in the Senate, where a two-thirds vote of members present can convict and remove the president from office.

imperialistic A economic, political, or military strategy by which a state and its people are subordinated to the will of a foreign state.

inalienable rights Certain freedoms that cannot be removed from individuals, groups, or communities.

incumbent The person currently in office.

indictable crimes Common law offences or statutory offences the punishments for which are infamous.

industrialization The process by which a society comes to be characterized by an economic system and a mode of social life based on machinery and the factory system of production.

Industrial Revolution A period of productive change beginning in the eighteenth century that employed machinery and steam power to manufacture goods and services in society.

industrialized economy An economy that relies primarily on mechanized production for its subsistence.

infrastructure The network of roads, dams, power plants, and communication, irrigation, and transportation systems that constitute the structural framework of a society.

initiative An electoral process whereby designated percentages of the electorate may initiate legislative changes by filing formal petitions to be acted upon by the legislature or the total electorate in a general election or referendum.

institutional Established patterns of human behaviour consisting of structured economic, political, or social interaction within a framework of common goals and values.

intelligence Information gathered by a government about the capabilities, strengths, weaknesses, and intentions of other states.

inter-American system All the regional institutional structures created by the Pan American movement in the western hemisphere. The Organization of American States (OAS) is the largest of these.

Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance A permanent collective-security agreement, establishing a defence zone from the North to the South Pole, that provides for military assistance among signatories in case of an armed attack within the zone or any form of aggression against a signatory from outside the zone.

intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) Electronically guided land-based weapons that can deliver their nuclear payloads at distances of over 3000 miles.

interests The desires, values, or objectives held in common by any number of individuals and groups.

internalize The process of adopting a society's norms as part of the individual's personality and notion of self.

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) A specialized agency of the United Nations, established in 1944 as the World Bank, to assist countries to achieve their development goals by providing loans and technical assistance to foster economic development.

International Court of Arbitration Created at The Hague Conference of 1899 as the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague, this international court institutionalizes and implements the procedures that have evolved on the arbitration of disputes.

International Monetary Fund (IMF) A specialized agency of the United Nations, established in 1944, to promote exchange-rate stability and provide monetary services to help its more than 130 members overcome short-term problems in their balance of payments.

interpellation A procedural action by a legislative member to interrupt the order of the day by asking a minister or committee official to explain some matter belonging to his or her jurisdiction.

INTERPOL Founded in 1914, Interpol has nearly 180 members who collect data and exchange information on criminal activities in the international community.

inviolability The universally recognized principle that diplomatic agents and their property should be protected from harm by the host nation.

irredentism Taken from the Italian expression Italia irredenta, meaning "Italy unredeemed," and refers to the desire of the people of a state to annex those contiguous territories of another country that is inhabited by the same linguistic or cultural minorities.

ius cogens The law of unnatural norms, which holds that a treaty is void if, at the time of its conclusion, it conflicts with a pre-emptory norm of general international law.

J

joint committee A Congressional committee struck on special subject-matter areas, made up of members of both Houses of the US Congress.

joint conference committee A Congressional committee composed of members of the US House and Senate to resolve differences resulting from conflicting interpretations of the same bill.

Judicial Committee of the Privy Council The Judicial Committee of the British Privy Council that acted as the court of final appeal for Canadians until 1949, when the Supreme Court of Canada was established as the final arbiter in Canadian jurisprudence.

judicial notice The act by which a court, in conducting a trial or framing its decision, will of its own motion, and without the production of evidence, recognize the existence and truth of certain facts that have a bearing on the matter before it.

judicial review The power of a court, in the course of litigation, to declare the actions of other branches of government unconstitutional.

judicial ruling The binding decision of a court on a matter before it.

junta A Spanish word for a board or council, but in politics the term usually applies to a group of military officers who collectively exercise the powers of government.

jurisdiction The recognized right of a state to exercise control over people, property, territory, and events within a given geographical area.

jus gentium The body of Roman law and equity that applied to all foreigners resident in the Roman Empire. The law was based on relations between foreigner and Roman citizens and reflected the common ideas of justice found in the laws and customs of the various peoples of the Empire.

K

kibbutz A collective farm in modern Israel.

kingship A society with its political power concentrated in a hereditary king or monarch, who rules in the name or guise of the gods.

L

L'Agence culturelle et technique de la langue française (Agency for Cultural and Technical Co-operation) An international association of French-language nation-states concerned with cultural and technical co-operation.

land-tenure system How land is organized, distributed and owned in a political economy.

law clerks Recent graduates of law school who typically serve a justice for a period of time to do research, to summarize petitions, to assist in writing, and to critique drafts of opinions.

leave of the court Permission obtained from a court to take some action which, without such permission, would not be allowable.

left A reference to the liberal, progressive, and/or socialist side of the political spectrum. This range of political thinking may seek from moderate to radical innovative change in society.

left wing The political designation of person, parties, or groups supporting extremely liberal or radical economic and political programs within a social system.

legal codes A collection and consolidation of existing statutes and common laws.

legal equality The principle by which the law must be applied to everyone without exception and every member of society must be treated the same way before the law.

legal equality of states A fundamental principle of international law that asserts the legal equality of all independent governing entities in the international system.

legation A diplomatic mission that is run without someone at the rank of ambassador.

legation A diplomatic mission that is run without someone at the rank of ambassador.

legitimacy The perception held by a majority of people that the exercise of power and the system of law are based on "rightful" authority and should be respected and obeyed.

Letters Patent An official document permitting a person, or a corporation authority from the government, to do some act or exercise some right.

libel To defame or injure a person's reputation in a published piece of writing.

life expectancy The average number of additional years a person is expected to live from birth.

lobbying Any individual or group activities that seek to influence legislators and bureaucrats. Many states now require lobbyists to register and disclose their activities to the government and the public.

M

Magna Carta An English constitutional document, signed in 1215, affirming that the power of the king was not absolute.

majority system An electoral system requiring either a plurality or an absolute majority to elect representatives to an organization or political institution.

Manhattan Project The US government-sponsored research project that produced the first atomic weapon.

mediation A procedure to peacefully settle disputes, whereby an impartial third party assists the disputants to resolve a conflict by offering its good offices, recommendations, and diplomatic skills to reconcile opposing claims.

merit principle A concept employed by modern government bureaucracies, in which the hiring of public servants should be based on entrance exams and promotion ratings to produce an administration of government by people with the proper qualifications, talent, and skill.

methodology The process of gathering, measuring, analyzing, and evaluating knowledge within a particular discipline.

militarism The influence and sometimes predominance of the armed forces in the political and governing life of a nation-state, by holding a veto over a civilian government, intervening in its affairs, or establishing a military government.

military necessity An ancient principle of war asserting that only military targets, armed forces, and weapons should be destroyed in combat, and that civilians are non-combatants.

mixed economy Economic systems in which private ownership of the means of production is predominant, although government maintains a substantial role as a consumer, investor, and producer.

model A set of assumptions a researcher accepts as true that influences the perception of that which is being observed.

modus operandi Usually a formal method of operating.

monetary policy Embraces all measures intended to affect the growth, utilization, efficiency, and distribution of wealth—especially measures intended to encourage the growth of savings in the form of financial assets, to develop money and capital markets, and to allocate credit between different economic sectors.

money bill Financial bills that authorize taxation and appropriations or expenditures that must be introduced first into the House of Commons by a minister of the Crown.

mortality rate The deaths occurring to a human population.

most-favoured-nation clause A provision inserted in a trade agreement that extends tariff concessions agreed to by the parties signing the treaty. The clause is written to prevent trade discrimination against a third party, as Canada would be with the European Union.

most-favoured-nation principle A provision inserted in a trade agreement that extends tariff concessions to all other states participating in the reciprocal system.

multilateral An type of action taken by three or more states to foster cooperation in trade, collective security, or any economic, political, or military endeavour established by treaty, convention, or other international instruments.

municipal law The technical term used by international lawyers to refer to the national or domestic law of a state.

Munsinger scandal A political controversy during the Diefenbaker period raising questions of national security resulting from an alleged affair between associate minister of Defence Pierre Sevigny and an East German prostitute, Gerda Munsinger.

mutually assured destruction (MAD) A strategic doctrine of deterrence under which each adversary preserves the capability to absorb a first nuclear strike by the other and still retaliate with devastating nuclear force—inflicting unacceptable damage on the attacker.

N

Napoleonic Code The code of law promulgated in 1804, when Napoleon became emperor, which embodies the civil law of France.

national debt The federal government's total indebtedness at a moment in time, mostly the result of previous deficits.

National Security Council (NSC) An executive office agency charged with advising the president on matters related to national security.

nationality That quality or character which arises from the fact of a person's belonging to a particular nation or state, by birth or naturalization.

negligence Omitting to do something that a reasonable person, guided by ordinary considerations, would do, or doing an act that would ordinarily not be done.

neo-conservatives Those who believe in the value of free markets, limited government, and individual self reliance in economic affairs, as well as in the value of tradition, law, and morality in social affairs.

neutrality The status recognized by international law whereby a state takes no part in a war and enjoys certain rights and exercises certain obligations within the international community.

non-confidence motion When a legislative assembly passes a vote of non-confidence in government (i.e., the cabinet), the prime minister and the cabinet must resign and request the dissolution of parliament.

non-partisan Political conduct showing no preference for any political party or ideological position.

non-violence The widespread belief, advanced by human rights advocates such as Martin Luther King and Mahatma Gandhi, that all human contact and interaction should be deliberately non-violent.

normative That which pertains to value judgments or standards as the way things should be.

normative political theory Philosophical positions promoting a subjective preference for certain standards of human conduct in the realm of politics.

North-South dialogue Discussions born of the growing tension between the few economically developed economies of the North and the many deprived economies of the South.

nuclear deterrencev The theory that if enough nuclear weapons are stockpiled by the government of one or more nation-states, other nuclear weapons states would refrain from using them as a deterrence.

nuclear freeze Measures taken unilaterally or through multilateral agreement among states to stop the production and spread of nuclear weapons.

nuclear proliferation The acquisition of nuclear weapons by nation-states that formerly did not have them.

nuclear-weapon-free zone Any state, region, or zone designated as an area free of nuclear weapons, as is Antarctica, the seabed, Latin America, and outer space.

O

observer status A formal arrangement between an international organization and a non-member state, allowing it to observe its decision-making councils without voting privileges.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB) A federal agency, created in 1970, within the executive office that replaced the Bureau of the Budget, which was formed in 1921 to handle the preparation of the annual budget.

oligarchy Taken from the Greek, meaning "rule by the few," where power is concentrated, rather than shared.

opinio iuris sive necessitates Literally means "legal attitudes are necessary" and asserts that legal forms of conduct are required by international law.

opposition Members of parliament who do not belong to the government party.

opting-out formula The prerogative of a province to dissent from a constitutional amendment so that the amendment has no affect in that province.

Order PaperThe daily agenda for the House of Commons.

orders in council Laws and decrees passed by the Cabinet without reference to the House of Commons.

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) A regional international economic organization established in 1961 to study and promote economic growth and free trade among its 24 members.

P

Pacific Rim A group of countries identified for purposes of trade and other international relations by their proximity to the Pacific Ocean. They include Australia, China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, New Zealand, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand.

pacifism The philosophical, religious, or practical rejection of all war and violence as a means of settling conflicts.

pacta sunt servanda Literally means "pacts are binding" and is the basic postulate on which the whole structure of positive international law is founded.

pardon An executive annulment of a penalty already prescribed.

participant observation A research method that permits the investigator to become a member and in effect part of the group under observation.

partisanship The degree of loyalty members of a political party or government display towards one another.

party boss A person who heads a political machine and who manipulates political power in a particular area (state, county, city), especially through the use and control of patronage.

party coalitions A temporary alliance of political parties united for some specific purpose.

party convention A special meeting held by a political party to select its leadership candidates, write a platform, choose a national or provincial committee and otherwise conduct party business.

party discipline Refers to the ways that members of a political party relate to its leadership, platform, voting strategy, and parliamentary procedures.

party identification The sense of psychological attachment or positive state of mind a voter has for a party, which is not the same thing as voting for a party in any given election.

party list system A method of electing representatives to multi-member constituencies whereby political parties prepare lists of their candidates from which electors may choose among the candidates on the list or must vote for the list in its entirety as prepared by the party.

party loyalty The powerful connection between members of Parliament and the political party that helped them get elected or appointed to their representative positions. Sometimes loyalty to party can supersede loyalty to the constituents who supported the parliamentarian.

patronage The practice of appointing political supporters to public office or to desirable positions on public boards, commissions, and committees.

peaceful settlement of disputes The resolution of international disputes, using legal and political procedural techniques such as arbitration, adjudication, diplomatic negotiation, good offices, inquiry, mediation, and conciliation.

peacekeeping The use of military means by an international organization, such as the United Nations, to prevent fighting, usually by acting as a buffer between and among combatants by sending a neutral collective contingent.

peacekeeping operations Usually carried out by the United Nations as a peace intervention, ranging from supervising elections, to promoting humanitarian aid, to sending in military forces.

peer groups People who are similar to an individual in age, sex, economic, social, and political background.

persona grata An expression used to indicate that a particular diplomatic agent is acceptable as an official representative of a foreign state.

personalism A characteristic of governing whereby the personality of the ruler dominates the institutions, structures, and constitutional prescriptions in a political system.

persona non grata Te term used to refer to a particular diplomatic representative appointed abroad, who is found to be unacceptable by the host state.

persons Legal entities that are subject to international law and have the capacity to enter into binding relations with all concomitant rights and duties.

petition A method of placing a candidate's name on a primary or a general election ballot by submitting a specified number or percentage of voters' signature to appropriate officials.

philosophes A popular group of French philosophers whose powerful influence was felt during the eighteenth-century Enlightenment. They attacked the old order in Europe, its institutions and ideals, and stressed the unity of human nature, reason, and natural law.

plenipotentiary Usually refers to the use of all available powers and resources in negotiation and diplomatic relations between and among states.

pluralism The existence of diverse social forces, such as political parties, political action groups, labour unions, social and religious groups, and service clubs.

plurality The number of votes secured by a candidate that is more than the number obtained by any rival candidates for office and is less than a majority of total votes cast.

pocket veto The US president may refuse to sign a bill passed by Congress within a 10-day period before adjournment.

polis Usually refers to the Greek city state that exercised independent jurisdiction over a small population and permitted citizens to participate in the decision-making process of the community.

political apathy Feelings of inattentiveness and/or non-involvement in political affairs, based on the attitude that perceived benefits in political participation are less than the anticipated costs of lost time or income.

political behaviour Human responses to the world of politics in the forms of perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, thoughts, and values, as well as overt actions such as campaigning, corruption, protesting, and voting.

political culture All the learned behaviour, beliefs, customs, and institutions a people use to do politics.

political cynicism Expressed feelings of doubt, distrust, and sarcasm aimed at the competence, credibility, and honesty of people in government and politics.

political efficacy The belief that one's participation in politics has some impact on political outcomes and government decisions.

political ideologies The ideas, values, beliefs, and generalized systems of thought that influence our political behaviour and institutions of government.

political modernization Progressive development and change within political systems, generally evolving towards greater governmental capacity to extend benefits in all levels of society by means of democratic institutions and practices.

political opinion Views expressed in the public that focus on government and political issues and are distinguished from general public opinions.

political participation Actions of private citizens by which they seek to influence or support government and politics.

political succession¹ The designated constitutional or extra-constitutional methods used to fill vacated offices of government.

political succession² The transfer of leadership and the exercise of power from one person or group of persons to another by violent or nonviolent means.

political system All interrelated institutions, practices, and traditions that enable a society to make authoritative, binding, and coercive decisions extending to all its members.

political values Those beliefs, goals, and standards that a society professes and tries to achieve.

politicization To transform an activity that apparently has no political connotations into one that fulfills political ends.

poll tracking Polls taken on a daily or weekly basis that are focused on the same event or the same candidate in order to determine whether a significant change is being reflected in political opinion.

pork barrel The public treasury that is drawn on by public officials legislating out of special interests for their own constituents or for their own political image.

portfolio The office and duties of a cabinet minister who is in charge of a government department. Some portfolios are "senior," as is the Minister of Finance, and co-ordinate their vast responsibilities along with a "junior" portfolio, as is the Ministry of State for Finance.

poverty line An amount of money that the government determines is the least amount required to meet the cost of living (accommodation, food, clothes, transportation, etc.) in the economy.

power of the purse The Constitution of the US gives Congress the power to raise and allocate monies to pay for government programs and other public liabilities.

power politics The description derived from the German Machtpolitik and Realpolitik, which sees the world of politics as essentially conducted among groups with power.

pragmatism A philosophical perspective traceable to the American writers William James and John Dewey, who stressed that concepts and actions should be evaluated in terms of their practical consequences and not necessarily according to theoretical rationale.

praxis A term derived from the Greek for "action," which later came to refer to what people do as against what they think, an active means of shaping historical conditions to one's advantage.

precedent A common-law principle that recognizes the high persuasive authority of previous court decisions on cases of similar legal character.

preferential ballot An electoral form that permits the voter to mark the candidates in the order of his or preference by placing numbers rather than Xs beside their names.

prerogative An exclusive right inherent within an office or position that may be constitutional or may have developed out of custom and tradition.

prescriptive judgments Political preferences that are demanded as essential for the betterment of society. They are stated as "shoulds" in all matters of government and politics.

Prime Minister's Office (PMO) An executive agency of government that functions as a source of advice to the prime minister on policy matters and matters related to public opinion concerning the government.

principles Comprehensive rules or doctrines that furnish a clear basis or origin for others unless contradicted by a proposition which is still clearer.

private member's bill A bill introduced by a member of parliament who is not a minister.

private sector In a mixed economy, that part of the economy which is not under governmental control, i.e., all private enterprise, private profit- and non-profit-making organizations and exchanges between individuals.

Privy Council Office (PCO) An executive government agency to advise on government matters and to communicate and co-ordinate cabinet decisions with relevant officials.

probate law The laws that affect the originality and validity of wills.

process Any rational sequence of related actions or operations leading to a desired goal or result.

proletariat In Marxist theory, the people belonging to the industrial working class who do not own the means of production and who are solely dependent for their livelihoods on their ability to sell their labour to the bourgeoisie.

promulgation The order that is given to cause a law to be executed and to make it public.

propagandize To convey ideas rapidly to many people, usually a large targeted audience, by means of symbols, media campaigns, music, and other instruments to arouse strong and emotional reactions for or against some policy, person, idea, or government.

proportional representation (PR) A multi-member electoral system in which each qualified party wins seats in a legislature in proportion to its total popular vote.

proportionate representation Legislative representation in Parliament based on the aggregate population of each province and territory.

prorogue To end a parliamentary session that is not followed by a general election.

proscribe When a legislative body or court order forbids a particular activity.

proscribed behaviour Generally it refers to human conduct that is forbidden.

protectionism The theory and practice of using government regulation to control, limit or terminate the volume of imports entering a state.

protocol A document or practice serving as the preliminary to, or opening of, any diplomatic transaction.

proxy voting When a person in the same category voted for another elector who was unable because of their occupations as students, fishers, prospectors, topographers, mariners, and air crews. The proxy ballot was replaced by the special ballot.

public administration The term preferred by political scientists to describe the bureaucratic process—how governments conduct themselves, the norms and values of government officials, the organization and accountability of bureaucrats, their relationships with politicians and the public, and the systems they use to make and implement decisions.

public opinion The expressed views of people about anything that concerns a society, for example, its politics, economy, and cultural interests.

public policy The culmination of the whole political system from which governmental actions or inactions are directed at a society's goals, priorities, and problems, based on the human and physical resources available to decision-makers.

Public Service Commission In 1967, the Canadian Civil Service Commission became the Public Service Commission, a central agency that under the Public Service Employment Act is empowered to recruit potential employees for public service through competitive examinations and interviews.

Q

quasi-legal This term is used in legal phraseology to indicate that one subject or action resembles what is law by comparison, but because of its non-binding effect there is an intrinsic and material difference between them.

Queen's Bench The name for a court so-called during the reign of a Queen.

Question Period During most days when Canadian Parliament is in session, approximately one hour is set when ministers have to answer questions raised by the opposition as well as by members of the government party.

R

random The quality of occurring by chance, or in no predictable fashion.

rapprochement The establishment of normal diplomatic and commercial relations between rival states after a period of estrangement.

ratification The validation, acceptance, or approval of an action of an official, agency of government, a treaty, or a constitution.

ratify The procedures used by states to approve and sanction treaties, conventions, and other instruments of international law requiring formal legal adoption by sovereign governments or international organizations.

ratio decidendi Literally, "the reason for the decision"; in cases of international consequences, court rulings contribute to the general principles of international law.

recall¹ A procedure enabling voters to remove an elected official from office before his or her term has expired.

recall² To summon a diplomat back to the sending state.

recognize To acknowledge$mdash;by an official act, such as the exchange of ambassadors—the existence of a government, and to indicate a willingness to engage in formal relations with it.

red tape The phrase (derived from the red ribbons tied around official documents in the royal courts of Europe) that refers to the system of rules and procedures applied by bureaucratic organizations in their routine affairs.

red Tory A term used to describe those conservatives who hold views that are relatively liberal in their social policy, placing a high value on the principle of noblesse oblige, but who remain conservative in their economic policy.

règlement An agreement to establish rules, regulations, controls, and conditions to govern the conduct of officials under special circumstances.

regulations Rules, usually written down in such documents as bylaws and operating manuals, that define such diverse matters as decision-making authority, criteria for promotion, and the everyday operating procedures of an organization.

referendum An electoral process by which legislative or constitutional questions are referred to the total electorate.

Reformation The religious movement that swept through Europe in the sixteenth century that challenged the authority, doctrine, and liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church and led to the rise of Lutheranism, Calvinism, and the Protestant churches.

remedy The means by which a legal right is enforced or a violation of a right is prevented under international and municipal law.

representation by population Representation within a legislative body, based on the principle that each legislator represents approximately equal populations.

reprieve The executive postponement of the carrying out of a sentence.

republic A state in which the government consists only of elected officials.

republicanism A theory of government held by the founders of the United States that government must be based on popular consent, be limited in its power, be protected against the majority, and have no monarchical or hereditary institutions.

reservation A clause in a treaty or other instrument of international relations whereby a signatory retains a right or exception to one or a number of provisions comprising the agreement.

residual powers Jurisdictions or powers that are not specifically enumerated in a constitution, which are delegated to a specific government, or implied from powers that are delegated to a recognized government. Sometimes also called reserved powers.

resolutions Formal statements by a convention or a legislature or some other body that declares or decides on a motion before it.

returning officer A person from each riding appointed by order in council to supervise the conduct of the election after writs of election are issued by the Chief Electoral Officer.

riding A legislative constituency from which an individual is elected with the charge to act in a public fashion on behalf of the people residing within the constituency.

right¹ A capacity residing in one person of controlling, with the assent and assistance of the state, the actions of others.

right² A reference to the conservative, traditional, anti-socialist, and anti-communist side of the political spectrum. Right-wing groups range their thinking from the maintenance of a conservative status quo to a reversion towards an earlier state of affairs; sometimes called reactionary.

right wing The political term used to indicate persons, parties, or groups supporting extremely conservative or reactionary economic and political programs.

rigid constitution A constitution that makes no allowances for amendments or that requires a procedure so difficult that it is almost impossible to add amendments.

roll-call voting A "yea" or "nay" vote in a legislative body, where each member's vote is required to be recorded.

Romanticism The cultural movement that began in eighteenth-century Europe, marking the transformation of intellectual thought from the rational to the intuitive as a means of perceiving and understanding the world. Romantics were fascinated by dreams and hallucinations that suggested a world beyond the empirical.

royal assent The final step in the passage of a bill, whereby the Crown accepts and signs it into law.

rule of law An Anglo-American legal concept that emphasises the supremacy of the law and restricts the discretionary and arbitrary powers of public officials.

runoff ballot A final election to break a tie or to force a majority of support for one candidate.

S

sabotage Originally referred to the practice (during the early stages of the industrial revolution) of workers placing their shoes (sabots) into machinery so as to grind production to a halt, but in diplomacy, the term refers to the wilful obstruction and interference with the normal diplomatic processes, with the aim to inconvenience or discourage normal relations.

safe conduct A guarantee or security granted by a sovereign to an envoy or a stranger for his or her safe coming into or passing out of the jurisdiction of the state.

samplingThe selection of part of a population or universe of members of any class of things that might be studied.

scientism The belief that the scientific method is applicable to all human problems and that it will generate the only possible solution to them.

secular A term referring to those political and social philosophies that advocate the separation of worldly things from religious and sacred interests.

select committee A legislative committee of the US Congress established for a limited period of time for a special purpose.

seniority rule The custom that the member of the majority party with the longest service on a particular congressional committee becomes its chair, and the member who has served the longest on the minority side becomes its ranking member.

separation of powers A major principle of American government whereby governing power is distributed among three branches of government: the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. The separation of lawmaking, the execution of law, law enforcement, and law interpretation is designed to prevent tyranny.

separation of personnel The officials of each branch of government are selected or elected by different procedures, have different terms of office, are independent of each other ,and may not retain office in more than one branch of government at the same time.

shadow cabinet A group of opposition legislators specifically assigned to observe and criticize cabinet ministers.

signatories Under international law, this usually refers to the party or parties signing a treaty.

single transferable vote A system of selecting representatives for a multi-member constituency whereby, once a candidate receives a certain number of votes determined by a quota to get elected, any additional votes are transferred to other candidates that may require more votes to fill the quota.

slander The speaking of base and defamatory words tending to prejudice another in reputation, office, trade, business, or means of livelihood.

social contract A theory of popular sovereignty based on the notion that humans had originally consented to a binding social agreement.

sociocultural The tendency of groups to view their norms and values as distinctive national characteristics and to use them as standards against which to judge and measure all other nations.

soft law Rules that develop within the international community that do not have the full character of obligation, precision, or delegation that hard law carries but nevertheless creates an expectation of conformity.

sovereignty The most essential characteristic of a state, involving governmental independence, autonomous political and legal decision-making, and the power to consent to binding treaties under international law.

specialization The apportionment of various tasks or procedures among individuals in an organization so as to maximize efficiency and decision-making facility.

Speech from the Throne The traditional opening ceremony for each session of Canadian Parliament, which outlines the proposals of the prime minister and the Cabinet, and is read by the governor-general or the Queen. In Québec, the premier now reads the statement of government policy.

spin doctors Loyal party supporters whose role it is to spin positive opinions about leaders and policies to other party members and the media.

spoils system In the US, the political advantage of a victorious president who appoints his supporters and those of the party to most of the jobs in the federal bureaucracy.

standing committee A permanent or regular committee created by a legislative body to consider matters on which the legislature may act.

Standing Orders The rules and forms that regulate procedures in the House of Commons. From time to time, they may be altered or suspended.

stare decisis "Let the decision stand." The principle of precedent in the Anglo-American tradition of law. In international law, there is no doctrine of stare decisis, but the International Court of Justice and many domestic court systems do take judicial notice of previous judicial opinions.

stateless The condition of an individual who has lost the legal claim to nationality and who no longer has the protection of any state.

state recognition The process by which a political and administrative entity become an international "person" under international law and is accepted by existing states as a new member of the global community with all legal rights, privileges, and responsibilities.

state secession The voluntary and sometimes involuntary withdrawal of a state, nation, or subnational government from some federation of which it forms a part.

State of the Union Address The annual message from the US president to a joint session of Congress, provided for in article II, section 3 of the Constitution, in which the president reports on current problems and proposes his legislative initiatives.

state terrorism Acts of terrorism carried out directly by, or encouraged and funded by, an established government.

strategic The capacity of a state to utilize location, natural and human resources, military strength, economic advantages, and other political or social variables for the purpose of enhancing its perceived power among other states.

strategic nuclear weapons Large-scale, long-range nuclear weapons delivered by ICBMs and bombers; they give a state a particular advantage in relations with other states.

strategic superiority A temporary military advantage of one or a group of states, arising out of the credible enhancement of their offensive and defensive capabilities.

stratification A system of social inequality based on hierarchical orderings of groups according to their members' share in socially valued rewards.

striking committee A selection committee that decides on the membership of all other committees.

subcommittee A supplementary group of individuals appointed by the chairperson of a legislative committee to investigate legislative matters and report to the larger committee.

substantive rights Fundamental inalienable rights created and defined in a constitution.

subpoena A written court order that requires witnesses to appear before a court and produce testimony.

summary offence An offence under any enactment of a province.

summit diplomacy The conduct of diplomacy by heads of state or governments instead of at the ambassadorial or ministerial level.

summons A written legal order issued by a judicial officer to a person who has had a formal legal complaint against him or her.

supernumerary judges Semi-retired judges who wish to continue judging on a part-time basis and who serve at various levels of the judiciary.

superpower The perceived status assigned to nation-states by virtue of their size, population, industrial-technological capacities, and military prowess that enables them to exercise influence throughout the entire international system.

superstructure The legal, political, and social institutions which reflect, express, and consolidate the relations of economic power that the flow from the mode of production practised by a society.

supranational organization An international organization to which members surrender some sovereignty or jurisdiction to a higher authority in order to achieve a degree of political and economic integration.

systematic approach An approach to the study of political knowledge that treats politics and government as a set of human interactions occurring within a larger social and international environment.

T

tactical nuclear weapons Small-scale, short-range nuclear devices designed for use in the battlefield.

tangible power Those obvious elements of power that are relatively easy to observe and measure, such as the size of a country, its military, and the weapons arsenal.

theocracy A term coined by the Jewish historian Josephus, who described government as embodied in the Torah, where divine laws are treated as civil obligations. But, as commonly used, the term came to mean government by priests.

thermonuclear A term usually referring to the destructive potential of nuclear weapons to unleash high volumes of measurable energy and heat when detonated.

Tory (plur. Tories) A word derived from the Irish toraighe, who terrorized English settlers in Ireland. Gradually the term was used in reference to the British Conservative Party, committed to free trade, a market economy, democracy, and human rights.

totalitarian The systematic political and social control by a government or party organization potentially over every facet of private and public life by means of technology.

transfer payments Monies collected by the federal government in the form of taxes and other revenues, which are transferred to the provinces to equalize social benefits to Canadians in every part of Canada according to a formula that calculates provincial revenues and population.

Treasury Board A statutory committee of Cabinet charged with overseeing the budgetary process of government.

triage The sorting out and classification of casualties of war or other disasters, to determine priority of need and proper place of treatment.

typology The systematic classification and grouping of phenomena by class or type.

U

unilateral When a state depends completely on its own resources for national security and the advancement of its interests.

unilateral disarmamentA strategy advocated by those who want disarmament that seeks to bypass deadlock in multilateral disarmament negotiations by undertaking one-sided initiatives to reduce the number and level of arms.

Uniting for Peace Resolution A resolution that authorizes the UN General Assembly to take collective action against aggression when the Security Council is paralyzed from ordering action by a permanent member's veto.

universal suffrage The right of qualified voters to participate in the electoral process of a political system through the use of the vote.

unwritten constitution A constitution that consists primarily of custom, convention, or statute that is not written down in one comprehensive document.

usage As it pertains to law, the manner of using, treating, or handling a legal matter in society.

Utilitarians Nineteenth-century thinkers who advocated the concept of utility as the foundation of morals. They followed the Greatest Happiness Principle, which posited that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they produce its opposite.

utopian A term coined by Sir Thomas More, derived from the Greek outopos, meaning "no place." More emphasized the word eu, meaning "best," thus suggesting that a utopia was a non-existent best place in reference to an ideal and harmonious society.

V

value free The predisposition of a social scientist to pursue research objectives without the intrusion of personal opinions and values, which might otherwise distort conclusions.

variable Any characteristic or property of something, containing two or more values that change in degree and help explain a particular event or phenomenon.

verification A process for determining whether all parties to an arms control agreement comply with its terms and provisions.

veto In the US, the constitutional power of the chief executive (i.e., the president) to refuse approval of legislation so that it cannot become law. The president may reject any bill or joint resolution passed by Congress, with the exception of proposed amendments to the US Constitution.

W

warrant A judicial writ issued to an authorized legal official requiring the official to arrest a designated party, or search certain persons or premises, or seize property.

ways and means motions The first step needed before Parliament imposes a new tax, continues an expiring tax, increases the rate of an existing tax, or extends a tax to include people not already paying tax and financial instruments related to a budget in Canada.

weapons of mass destruction Any weapons that can be distinguished from conventional weapons by their enormous capacity to kill all forms of life.

Weber, Max A German sociologist whose work profoundly influenced Western social thought, sociological method, and administrative theory.

welfare state Refers to nation-states with elaborate government insurance, public assistance, education, and medical programs that are designed to maximize the economic and social welfare of their citizens.

Whigs A term used in reference to Scottish rebels in the 1670s, and from 1680 onwards it referred to the English liberal political faction that sought to transfer power from the monarch to Parliament. Eventually the term applied to the British Liberal Party.

white supremacy The maintenance of political control by white people over a minority or majority of non-whites in the same community or state.

World Bank With its headquarters in Washington, DC, the World Bank, formally the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), is the largest single lending institution in the international community. It encourages development and investment between the advanced industrial economies and the less-developed economies.

world government The age-old concept of a global set of governing institutions that would make laws binding on all national and international actors, which would surrender many of their sovereign rights to a supranational authority.

writ of amparo A written legal order that grants a citizen judicial relief from the denial of personal rights that are guaranteed by the constitution.

writ of habeas corpus A written judicial order demanding legal officials to immediately produce or release a prisoner and cite the reasons for his/her imprisonment.

writ of mandamus A written judicial order that compels a party to perform a certain act required by law.

writ of prohibition A written judicial order demanding that a specified action cease.

written constitution The fundamental law as it appears in one or more written documents.

X

xenophobia An extreme fear of foreigners, sometimes accompanied by a pathological hatred of strangers, by racism, and by ethnic cleansing.

Z

zero population growth A population with a growth rate of zero because births plus immigration equal deaths plus emigration.

zone of peace Any country, region, or zone designated as an area free of any arms-conventional or nuclear.