panic a form of localized collective behaviour by which people react to a threat or other stimulus with irrational, frantic, and often self-destructive behaviour

participant observation a research method by which investigators systematically observe people while joining in their routine activities

participant observation (or fieldwork)research in which the researcher participates in a research setting while observing what is happening in that setting

pastoralism a way of life based on the domestication of animals

patriarchy a form of social organization in which males dominate females

patrilineal (system of descent) a system of reckoning descent that counts only the father’s side

patrilocality a residential pattern in which a married couple lives with or near the husband’s family

patterns recurring characteristics or events

peer group a social group whose members have interests, social position, and age in common

personal identity kit items people use to decorate their bodies

personal space the surrounding area over which a person makes some claim to privacy

personality a person’s fairly consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting

personality disorders the view that a personality disturbance of some sort causes an individual to violate social norms

Peter principle a bureaucratic “law” according to which the members of an organization are promoted for good work until they reach their level of incompetence, the level at which they can no longer do good work

pink ghettoes also knows as job ghettoes, employment areas dominated by women (and usually lower paid than areas dominated by men)

plea bargaining a legal negotiation in which the prosecution reduces a defendant’s charge in exchange for a guilty plea

pluralism the diffusion of power among many interest groups, preventing any single group from gaining control of the government

pluralist model an analysis of politics that view power as dispersed among many competing interest groups

pluralistic society a society made up of many different groups

political parties organizations operating within the political system that seek control of the government

political revolution the overthrow of one political system in order to establish another

political socialization the way in which young people are inculcated with beliefs, ideas, and values that embrace the civil order through the education system

politics the institutionalized system by which a society distributes power, sets the society’s agenda, and makes decisions

polyandry a marriage in which a woman has more than one husband

polygamy a form of marriage uniting three or more people

polygyny a marriage in which a man has more than one wife

polytheism belief in many gods

popular culture cultural patterns that are widespread throughout society

population the people who are the focus of research

population shrinkage the process by which a country’s population becomes smaller because its birth rate and immigration are too low to replace those who die and emigrate

population transfer involuntary movement of a minority group

population a target group to be studied

pornography sexually explicit material that causes sexual arousal

positive sanction a reward or positive reaction for approved behaviour, for conformity

positivism a means to understand the world based on science

postindustrial economy a productive system based on service work and extensive use of information technology

postindustrialism technology that supports an information-based economy

postmodern society another term for postindustrial society; its chief characteristic is the use of tools that extend the human abilities to gather and analyze information, communicate, and travel

postmodernity social patterns characteristic of post-industrial societies.

power the ability to carry out one’s will, even over the resistance of others

power elite C. Wright Mills’ term for those who rule the country: the top people in the leading corporations, the most powerful generals and admirals of the armed forces, and certain elite politicians, who make the nation’s major decisions

power-elite model an analysis of politics that views power as concentrated among the rich

prejudice a rigid and irrational generalization about an entire category of people

preoperational stage Piaget’s term for the level of development in which individuals first use language and other symbols

presentation of self Goffman’s term for the ways in which individuals, in various settings, try to create specific impressions in the minds of others

prestige respect or regard

primary group a group characterized by intimate, long-term, face-to-face association and cooperation

primary labour market occupations that provide extensive benefits to workers

primary sector the part of the economy that generates raw materials directly from the natural environment

primary sex characteristics the genitals, organs used for reproduction

primary social deviance Edwin Lemert’s term for acts of social deviance that have little effect on the self-concept

principles of scientific management also referred to as Taylorism, scientific management sought to reduce waste and inefficiency in production by measuring every movement and regulating every step of the work process

private ownership of the means of production the ownership of machines and factories by individuals who decide what shall be produced

proactive social movement a social movement that promotes some social change

profane Durkheim’s term for common elements of everyday life

profession (as opposed to a job) an occupation characterized by rigorous education, a theoretical perspective, self-regulation, authority over clients, and a professional culture that stresses service to society

proletariat Karl Marx’s term for the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of production

propaganda in its broad sense, the presentation of information in the attempt to influence people; in its narrow sense, one-sided information used to try to influence people

property crimes crimes that involve theft of property belonging to others

proportional representation an electoral system in which seats in a legislature are divided according to the proportion of votes each political party receives

prostitution the selling of sexual services

Protestant ethic Weber’s term to describe the ideal of a self-denying, highly moral life, accompanied by hard work and frugality

public opinion widespread attitudes about controversial issues

public a dispersed group of people who usually have an interest in the issue on which a social movement focuses; the sympathetic and hostile publics have such an interest, but a third public is either unaware of the issue or indifferent to it

pure or basic sociology sociological research whose only purpose is to make discoveries about life in human groups, not to make changes in those groups