race a socially constructed category composed of men and women who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society deem socially significant

racism the belief that one racial category is innately superior or inferior to another

rain forests regions of dense forestation, most of which circle the globe close to the equator

random sample a sample in which everyone in the target population has the same chance of being included in the study

rapport a feeling of trust between researchers and subjects

rationality the acceptance of rules, efficiency, and practical results as the right way to approach human affairs

rationalization Max Weber’s term for the change from tradition to rationality as the dominant mode of human thought

rational-legal authority authority based on law or written rules and regulations; also called bureaucratic authority

reactive social movement a social movement that resists some social change

real culture (as opposed to ideal culture) actual social patterns that only approximate cultural expectations

redemptive social movement a social movement that seeks to change people totally

reference group a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations or decisions

reformative social movement a social movement that seeks to change only particular aspects of society

reformists a category of study of feminist spirituality represented by those who advocate revealing the “liberating core” of religious teachings with female imagery and exposing and refusing to accept rituals that are clearly sexist

rehabilitation a program for reforming the offender to preclude subsequent offences

reincarnation in Hinduism and Buddhism, the return of the soul after death in a different form

rejectionists a category of study of feminist spirituality represented by those who judge the traditional teachings to be hopelessly sexist and have left it to establish a new spiritual tradition

relative deprivation a perceived disadvantage arising from some specific comparison

relative poverty the deprivation of some people in relation to those who have more

reliability the quality of consistent measurement

religion according to Durkheim, beliefs and practices that separate the profane from the sacred and unite its adherents into a moral community

religiosity the importance of religion in a person’s life

religious fundamentalism a conservative religious doctrine that opposes intellectualism and worldly accommodation in favour of restoring traditional, otherworldly religion

replication repetition of research by other investigators

representative democracy a form of democracy in which voters elect representatives to govern and make decisions on their behalf

reputational method (of measuring social class) a system in which people who are familiar with the reputations of others are asked to identify their social class

research method (or research design) one of seven procedures sociologists use to collect data: surveys, participant observation, qualitative interviews, secondary analysis, documents, unobtrusive measures, and experiments

reserve labour force the unemployed; unemployed workers are thought of as being “in reserve” — capitalists take them “out of reserve” (put them back to work) during times of high production and then lay them off (put them back in reserve) when they are no longer needed

resocialization deliberate socialization intended to radically alter an individual’s personality

resource mobilization a theory that social movements succeed or fail on the basis of their ability to mobilize resources such as time, money, and people’s skills

respondents people who respond to a survey, either in interviews or by self-administered questionnaires

retribution moral vengeance by which society inflicts suffering on an offender comparable to that caused by the offence

retrospective labelling the interpretation of someone’s past consistent with present deviance

revisionists a category of study of feminist spirituality represented by those who believe that the basic message of the major religions is liberating

revolution armed resistance designed to overthrow a government

revolutionaries a category of study of feminist spirituality represented by those who seek to change the established orthodoxy by importing language, images, and rituals from other traditions

riot violent crowd behaviour aimed against people and property

rituals ceremonies or repetitive practices; in this context, religious observances or rites, often intended to evoke awe for the sacred

role normative patterns of behaviour for those holding a particular status

role conflict conflicts that someone feels between roles because the expectations attached to one role are incompatible with the expectations of another role

role extension the incorporation of additional activities into a role

role performance the ways in which someone performs a role within the limits that the role provides; showing a particular “style” or “personality”

role set a number of roles attached to a single status

role strain incompatibility among roles corresponding to a single status

role the behaviours, obligations, and privileges attached to a status

romantic love feelings of erotic attraction accompanied by an idealization of the other

routinization of charisma the transformation of charismatic authority into some combination of traditional and bureaucratic authority

ruling class another term for the power elite

rumour unsubstantiated information spread informally, often by word of mouth