sacred Durkheim’s term for things set apart or forbidden that inspire fear, awe, reverence, or deep respect

sample a part of a population that represents the whole

sanctions expressions of approval or disapproval given to people for upholding or violating norms

Sapir‑Whorf thesis the assertion that people perceive the world only in terms of the symbols contained in their language

scapegoat a person or category of people, typically with little power, whom people unfairly blame for their own troubles

schooling formal instruction under the direction of specially trained teachers

science a logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation

scientific management Frederick Taylor’s term for applying scientific principles to the operation of a business or other large organization

scientific method the use of objective, systematic observations to test theories

secondary analysis a research method in which a researcher utilizes data collected by others

secondary group compared with a primary group, a larger, relatively temporary, more anonymous, formal, and impersonal group based on some interest or activity, whose members are likely to interact on the basis of specific roles

secondary labour market jobs that provide minimal benefits to workers

secondary sector the part of the economy that transforms raw materials into manufactured goods

secondary sex characteristics bodily differences, apart from the genitals, that distinguish biologically mature females and males

secondary social deviance Edwin Lemert’s term for acts of social deviance incorporated into the self-concept, around which an individual orients his or her behaviour

sect a type of religious organization that stands apart from the larger society

secularization the historical decline in the importance of the supernatural and the sacred

segregation the physical and social separation of categories of people

selective perception seeing certain features of an object or situation, but remaining blind to others

self George Herbert Mead’s term for that part of an individual’s personality composed of self-awareness and self-image

self-administered questionnaires questionnaires filled out by respondents

self-fulfilling prophecy Robert Merton’s term for an originally false assertion that becomes true simply because it was predicted

sensorimotor stage Piaget’s term for the level of development in which individuals experience the world only through sensory contact

sex the biological distinction between females and males

sex ratio the number of males for every 100 females in a given population

sex typing the association of behaviours with one sex or the other

sexism the belief that one sex is innately superior to the other

sexual harassment comments, physical contact, or gestures of a sexual nature that are deliberate, repeated, and unwelcome

sexual orientation an individual’s preference in terms of sexual partners: same sex, other sex, either sex, neither sex

shaman the healing specialist of a preliterate tribe who attempts to control the spirits thought to cause a disease or injury; commonly called a witch doctor

sick role a social role that excuses people from normal obligations because they are sick or injured, while at the same time expecting them to seek competent help and cooperate in getting well

significant other an individual who significantly influences someone else’s life

sign-vehicles the term used by Erving Goffman to refer to how people use social setting, appearance, and manner to communicate information about the self

slavery a form of social stratification in which some people own other people

small group a group small enough for everyone to interact directly with all the other members

social change the transformation of culture and social institutions over time

social character personality patterns common to members of a particular society

social class a large number of people with similar amounts of income and education who work at jobs roughly comparable in prestige; according to Weber, a large group of people who rank closely to one another in wealth, power, and prestige; according to Marx, one of two groups: capitalists who own the means of production or workers who sell their labour

social cohesion the degree to which members of a group or a society feel united by shared values and other social bonds

social conflict struggle between segments of society over valued resources

social construction of reality the process by which people use their background assumptions and life experiences to define what is real for them

social construction of technology the view (opposed to technological determinism) that culture (people’s values and special interests) shapes the use and development of technology

social control attempts by society to regulate the thought and behaviour of individuals

social deviance the violation of rules or norms

social dysfunction the undesirable consequences of any social pattern for the operation of society

social environment the entire human environment, including direct contact with others

social epidemiology the study of how health and disease are distributed throughout a society’s population

social facts Durkheim’s term for the patterns of behaviour that characterize a social group

social function the consequences of any social pattern for the operation of society as a whole

social group two or more people who identify and interact with one another

social inequality a social condition in which privileges and obligations are given to some but denied to others

social institutions the organized, usual, or standard ways by which society meets its basic needs

social integration the degree to which people feel a part of social groups

social interaction the process by which people act and react in relation to others

social location the group memberships that people have because of their location in history and society

social mobility movement up or down the social-class ladder

social movement a large group of people who are organized to promote or resist social change

social movement organization an organization developed to further the goals of a social movement

social network the social ties radiating outward from the self that link people together

social order a group’s usual and customary social arrangements, on which its members depend and on which they base their lives

social placement a function of education that funnels people into a society’s various positions

social protection rendering an offender incapable of further offences either temporarily through incarceration or permanently by execution

social sciences the intellectual and academic disciplines designed to understand the social world objectively by means of controlled and repeated observations

social setting the place where the action of everyday life unfolds

social stratification the division of large numbers of people into layers according to their relative power, property, and prestige; applies both to nations and to people within a nation, society, or other group

social structure the framework that surrounds us, consisting of the relationship of people and groups to one another, which gives direction to and sets limits on behaviour

social-conflict paradigm a framework for building theory that envisions society as an arena of inequality generating conflict and change

socialism an economic system in which natural resources and the means of producing goods and services are collectively owned

socialization the process by which people learn the characteristics of their group: the attitudes, values, and actions thought appropriate for them

socialized health care a health care system in which the government owns and operates most medical facilities and employs most physicians.

society a term used by sociologists to refer to a group of people who share a culture and a territory

sociobiology a theoretical paradigm that explores ways in which our biology affects how humans create culture

sociocultural evolution the process of change that results from a society’s gaining new information, particularly technology

socioeconomic status (SES) a composite ranking based on various dimensions of social inequality

sociological perspective an approach to understanding human behaviour that entails placing it within its broader social context

sociology the systematic study of human society

spirit of capitalism Weber’s term for the desire to accumulate capital as a duty — not to spend it, but as an end in itself — and to constantly reinvest it

spurious correlation an apparent, although false, association between two (or more) variables caused by some other variable

state capitalism an economic and political system in which companies are privately owned although they cooperate closely with the government

state church a church formally allied with the state

state terrorism the use of violence, generally without support of law, by a government or its agents

state a political entity that claims monopoly on the use of violence in some particular territory; commonly known as a country

status social ranking; the position someone occupies in society or a social group

status consistency the degree of consistency of a person’s social standing across various dimensions of social inequality

status inconsistency (or discrepancy) ranking high on some dimensions of social class and low on others; a contradiction or mismatch between statuses

status set all the statuses a person holds at a given time

status symbols items used to identify a status

stereotype prejudicial views or descriptions of some categories of people

stigma a powerfully negative social label that radically changes a person’s self-concept and social identity

stockholders’ revolt the refusal of a corporation’s stockholders to rubber-stamp decisions made by its managers

stored value the backing of a currency by goods that are stored and held in reserve

strain theory Robert Merton’s term for the strain engendered when a society socializes large numbers of people to desire a cultural goal (such as success) but withholds from many the approved means to reach that goal; one adaptation to the strain is crime, the choice of an innovative means (one outside the approved system) to attain the cultural goal

stratified random sample a sample of specific subgroups of the target population in which everyone in the subgroups has an equal chance of being included in the study

streaming the assigning of students to different types of educational programs

street crime crimes such as mugging, rape, and burglary

structural social mobility a shift in the social position of a large number of people due to changes in society itself

structural-functional paradigm a framework for building theory that envisions society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability

structured conversation see qualitative or field interview

structured interviews interviews that use closed-ended questions

subculture the values and related behaviours of a group that distinguish its members from the larger culture; a world within a world

subjective meanings the meanings that people give their own behaviour

subjective method (of measuring social class) a system in which people are asked to state the social class to which they belong

subsistence economy a type of economy in which human groups live off the land with little or no surplus

suburbanization the movement from the city to the suburbs

suburbs urban areas beyond the political boundaries of a city

superego Freud’s term for the presence of culture within the individual in the form of internalized values and norms

survey a research method in which participants respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or an interview

sustainable environment a world system that takes into account the limits of the environment, produces enough material goods for everyone’s needs, and leaves a heritage of a sound environment for the next generation

symbol anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share culture

symbolic culture another term for nonmaterial culture

symbolic interactionism a theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another

symbolic-interaction paradigm a theoretical framework that envisions society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals

system of descent how kinship is traced over the generations